Flintknapping, the practice of creating arrowheads and other primitive tools out of stone, has experienced a tremendous influx of students over the past ten years, but the skills haven’t changed.

The two basic techniques of flintknapping are percussion flaking, which is used to break apart large cobbles of flint or obsidian into smaller, flatter flakes, and pressure flaking, which uses an antler or copper billet to remove fine flakes of stone and gradually shape the cobble into a tool. Of the two methods, percussion flaking is the more dangerous: I always wear heavy leather gloves and eye protection when I do it.

If you’re just getting started, I would begin by looking up college flintknapping clubs online. These clubs, often associated with universities’ anthropology and archeology departments, usually have a weekly practice session where you can learn the basics. Stick with it and practice an hour every day, and you should be kicking out some decent-looking arrowheads after a few weeks. I make my own tools or trade for them with other knappers, but you can also obtain gear and instructional DVDs through .

There are also many fine flintknapping rendezvous around the world; , I would recommend checking it out. The country鈥檚 two big events are the , which happens in late summer in southern Ohio, and the , which takes place east of Bend, Oregon in March. Go to either, and you’re sure to get in plenty of knapping. Napping, too: after a couple days of pounding on stone, you’re going to be tired.

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1. Not bringing enough water.
2. Not bringing electrolyte replacements.
3. Not bringing enough water.
4. Hiking during the middle of the day in the summer.
5. Thinking that because they are in great shape, they’re acclimated to the heat.

Let鈥檚 look at some of these:

Not bringing enough water
During the summer, I suck down three gallons or more a day during desert survival courses I teach for the military鈥攅ven though the course doesn’t involve much hiking and we hole up from 12 to 4 p.m. to avoid overheating. Don’t skimp on the water, and don鈥檛 plan on finding it in the backcountry, no matter how wet a spring it has been. The best water source is your kitchen tap. Plan ahead.

Not bringing enough electrolyte replacements
Water by itself isn’t enough to keep the human body going. We also need quality electrolytes to replenish sodium and potassium lost through perspiration. If you don’t get them, you run the risk of developing hyponatremia, or “water intoxication,” which can be life-threatening. I add in some GU2O or Vitalyte to all of my drinking water. Try to consume two to three packets of electrolyte powders per day, depending on your activity level.

Not bringing enough water
Bring water. Enough said.

Hiking in the middle of the day
There’s a reason the siesta came about in the Southwest and other desert regions. Think like a coyote: I generally get shade-hungry about 11 a.m. and find a nice cool spot to relax, rehydrate and take a catnap until the cooler hours.

Thinking that because they’re in good shape, they’re acclimated to the heat
Many of the hikers who get dragged out of the Grand Canyon each summer with heat-related injuries are endurance athletes or otherwise in superb physical condition. The reason? They have a big engine but a little radiator. It takes about a week of living in the heat full time before your body becomes acclimated and can handle heat stress efficiently.

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I鈥檝e encountered a lot of weather folklore over the years from books and other guides. A few methods are reliable, and others may work depending on what part of the U.S. or world you’re in. Below, I’ve listed some of the signs that I rely on to evaluate weather conditions in the wild. Learn about the traditions of the area where you reside to see what farmers and local indigenous people, who worked out the blueprint long ago, look for.

Mare’s Tail Clouds
These high cirrus clouds, which have a feathery, comma-shaped appearance, are a sign that a major low-pressure system may be rolling in within 36 to 48 hours. When I see mare’s tails, I know we have to bolster the firewood supply and fortify our shelters, or at least check the weather radio or sat phone to see how nasty things are going to get. Knowing this weather forecasting tip has saved my hide a few times.

Spring Peepers
These small chorus frogs often put on quite a performance right before a major storm front rolls in. I don鈥檛 have much occasion to use this in Arizona where I live, but back in Michigan, where I grew up, we took note when peepers were getting loud.

Pay attention to other critters prior to arrival of a known storm and see what you can learn. Biting insects and the birds that feed upon them, such as swallows, will often fly much lower due to inner-ear pressure from a plunging barometer. This doesn鈥檛 always mean rain, but considered alongside other environmental cues, it can be a sign of what’s coming.

Twinkling Stars
Some of my meteorologist friends disagree with me on the particulars of this one, but I’ve found that when the night sky is especially aglow with stars, the next day will probably be very windy. This is due to high winds, which strip away the upper layer of clouds, thus allowing the stars to shimmer through. These winds will often descend the next day鈥擨 have a 50-50 success rate on this one. Of course, it’s always windy here in northern Arizona, so this is no big revelation for us.

Pay attention to weather patterns in your region and keep a journal to confirm what works and what鈥檚 unfounded. If you want an excellent, easy-to-follow guide, look for a used copy of any of Eric Sloane鈥檚 books on weather forecasting or the . If you’re fortunate enough to live by the ocean, go pick the brains of some of the crusty, old-time sailors. They’ll fill your ear with tidbits of practical advice, or at least good stories.

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On my Knife-Only Survival Courses, students and instructors sleep out in the cold by burrowing into a thick bed made of pine needles. By thick, I mean four to five feet of needles or leaves piled high into a framework of logs. Stack the logs into a rectangular frame about a foot wider and longer than your body. Then, layer two feet of compressed debris (leaves, moss, duff, cattails) on the bottom to keep the ground from conducting away your body heat. Next, pile up about three to four feet of more debris on the edges to create a body-sized trough. When it鈥檚 time to turn in, spread flat on your back in the trough and scoop the debris in around you like a blanket, covering yourself from head to toe. Yeah, you’re going to have dirt, rabbit droppings, and pine needles in your hair, ears, and nose, but it beats dying a slow death from hypothermia.

I鈥檝e slept this way, without a sleeping bag, down to 10 degrees Fahrenheit during the colder months and, on occasion, have had to pull off some 鈥渂edding鈥� during the night, as these shelters retain heat quite well (squirrels use a similar setup). I recall one story about a lost child stuffing his pants and shirt with oak leaves and surviving several nights out in freezing temperatures.

Just keep in mind that this is a non-smoking shelter, and build any campfire a good distance away. Otherwise, your shelter itself will turn into a signal fire鈥攜ou don’t want to be that warm.

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I have two approaches to cold-weather foods. When I head out on a day hike in the snow-capped mountains, I always bring some Scottish shortbread (check the cookie aisle in the grocery store) and a thermos filled with about 4 cups of hot cocoa and a stick of butter. I鈥檓 sure this won鈥檛 make the American Heart Association鈥檚 top-ten food list, but in a winter setting, think mucho calories and fat. Your body’s like a wood stove: you need to be tossing in some decent fuel if you鈥檙e going to contend with cold temps.

I once kept a journal of my food intake on a weeklong survival course in the subarctic and found that I averaged about 9,000 calories a day.听 No love handles at the end: the chow went in and much-needed BTUs came out.

When I am on overnight treks, I have one-pot meals of pasta, cheese, butter, chicken, and dehydrated veggies. Because my job keeps me on the road so much, my truck emergency kit has a 64-ounce cooking pot, eight instant soup packets, three freeze-dried dinners (like those made by Mountain Home), some shortbread, and a big jar of peanut butter. At the very least, carry some PB with you for back-up food should you get stranded in a blizzard鈥攖here’s nothing like a few spoonfuls of peanut butter to get your metabolism going before changing a tire in 40 mile per hour winds.

If you want some excellent ready-made survival food, then purchase a package of . One package contains 3600 calories, comes in a bar that resembles shortbread, and is actually very tasty.

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The key to fire-by-friction methods like the bow drill and hand drill is to use soft, non-resinous wood. So a wood like pine, while being soft, is not going to work due to the sap, which causes convective cooling of the wood dust you’re trying to light.

You’re better off using a wood that has a low ignition point. Physics aside, the best options are dry yucca stalks, cottonwood, cedar, aspen, and basswood. Which you use depends on where you are. Back East, I used cedar and basswood for all of my primitive firemaking tools. In the Southwest, yucca is king, followed by cottonwood and, as a last resort, aspen. With an ignition point of just 200 degrees fahrenheit, yucca is the finest firemaking material in North America鈥攊t will spoil you.

A typical bow-drill set looks like this in Arizona: yucca stalk for both drill and fireboard; an arm-length, finger-thick, slightly-curved bow听 (I like to use a dead juniper branch); buckskin or dampened rawhide for the cord (or 550 paracord if being 100 percent primitive isn’t an issue); and a handhold made of something harder than the drill, such as oak, juniper, antler, or bone.听

If you would like more information on the mechanics and techniques of making and using bow drills and hand drills, read up on it in the .

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Other than running into a shady two-legged, the bear is the most dangerous large animal in the backcountry. Given much-publicized attacks by grizzly bears in recent years, I thought I would focus on them. I spoke with , who lives in the heart of bear country in Montana where his job regularly takes him within sight of these amazing creatures.

If you run into a听grizzly and they are not aware of your presence, it’s best to quietly leave the area.听“If you bump into one that knows you are there, turn sideways slightly and avert your stare, since bears recognize a full-frontal gaze as a threat,” Cronenwett says. “Talk to the animal in an unthreatening voice and pull your pepper spray from its holster. Do not arm the can unless a charge is in progress.鈥澨�

Cronenwett says that bears usually don’t want to scrap. “It’s a dangerous waste of energy, and most grizzlies do not recognize humans as prey.听 Sure there are exceptions, but most of the recent incidents have involved mothers with young and defensive actions.鈥澨� The vast majority of the time, a听grizzly will go the other way if given a chance.听

His advice from many years on the trail: Keep your camp clean and bear box your food. Make noise when going around blind corners. Stay alert and know how to recognize bear sign (i.e. rub trees, scat, and tracks). Avoid camping near carcasses or trails (bears use them too). Make sure to carry pepper spray. “The effectiveness of pepper spray is undisputed,” Cronenwett says. “Practice drawing and arming it regularly.听 This device isn’t perfect, but it’s far more effective听and easier to use than firearms.听 Taking a听snoutful of pepper spray is听a powerful deterrant to a charge.”

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Primitive archery is exciting. For years, I made my own wooden bows, hand-fletched arrows, and arrowheads for use in hunting, but it takes time to acquire the know-how.听 I鈥檇 recommend taking a class with an experienced bowyer or going to one of the many primitive archery rendezvous around the country. The monthly magazine is a good way to locate someone in your area.

Another great resource is the . This four-volume set of books was a tremendous help to me when I was starting to make bows. I learned from these books how to make bows using 1鈥漻2鈥� pieces of lumber from Home Depot, instead of seasoned lumber I had to collect afield. Figuring out how to make bows from this readily-available material make the learning process much easier.

I would start by getting a copy of volume one of The Traditional Bowyer鈥檚 Bible and reading through the “Bows From Boards” section. After that, pick up some lumber to practice on while seeking out someone in your region to fine-tune your skills. Be aware that this form of woodworking can become addictive once you deliver an arrow from your first handmade bow.

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A few years ago, I would have said to forget about using a cellphone in the backcountry since reception was so limited, particularly in the western U.S. That has changed; even remote regions like the Navajo Nation in Arizona have cell-towers. You’re still limited if you’re in the bottom of a canyon or between mountain passes. That鈥檚 where an satellite phone would come into play. I have used sat phones in narrow canyons and other places where cellphone reception isn鈥檛 available.

Even if you don’t have reception, your cell phone can alert rescuers to your location. A lost dayhiker in the Superstition Mountains east of Phoenix was found by rescuers after they used night-vision goggles to locate her illuminated cellphone screen from two miles away. In another case in the mountains of Oregon, a stranded motorist and her two children were located by plane after technicians triangulated her cellphone transmissions. (She may not have been able to get a signal, but her phone was periodically “checking in” with a nearby tower.)

If you’ll be traveling in a remote area, I recommend bringing backup signaling items such as a sat phone, signal mirror, and ACR Strobe light. If you get lost and your cellphone gets reception, great. If not, keep in mind the above stories and continue to use your cell throughout the ordeal as you never know what capabilities searchers have on their end.

听

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There are hundreds of plants whose fiber can be used to weave rope. Which one you use depends on where you live. Each region of North America has its key indicator species that was used by native cultures, so look into your own bio-region and see what was used historically.

A few generics used throughout the U.S. include cedar bark, basswood bark, cattails, milkweed, dogbane, moosewood (also called leatherwood), and yucca. Out of all of these, yucca has the greatest tensile strength. In Arizona, where I live, it was used by ancient peoples for climbing rope, baskets, sandals, and even soap.

While it鈥檚 beyond the scope of this short column to describe the physical process of weaving, the most common method for weaving together plant fibers is the . I have also braided fibers together, similar to how women braid their hair. This makes for a very strong rope, although it’s less pliable than the reverse-wrap method. Once you become skilled at making cordage, you can knock out 10 feet of rope in 20 minutes or less, depending on the material. Speaking solely from a survival standpoint, though, it’s better to just carry 25 feet of rope in your pack.

For more info on weaving and other traditional skills, check out the , a bi-annual journal on prehistoric living skills.

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